Appendices

Supplementary data

Technological parameter assumptions

Energy supply technologies

Parameter assumptions on power generation technologies (US$ kW-1).
  Initial cost       O&M cost      
  2020 2030 2040 2050 2020 2030 2040 2050
Coal-PC 2704 2704 2704 2704 106 106 106 106
Coal-USC 2733 2733 2733 2733 99 99 99 99
Coal-IGCC 3132 3132 3132 3132 122 122 122 122
Coal-IGFC 3486 3486 3486 3486 135 135 135 135
Coal-IGCC CCS 3886 3886 3886 3886 176 176 176 176
Coal-IGFC CCS 4102 4102 4102 4102 179 179 179 179
Gas-GT 1122 1122 1122 1122 34 34 34 34
Gas-CC 1247 1247 1247 1247 38 38 38 38
Gas-ACC 1307 1307 1307 1307 39 39 39 39
Gas-MACC 1674 1674 1674 1674 49 49 49 49
Gas-GTFC 1948 1948 1948 1948 56 56 56 56
Gas-CC CCS 1987 1987 1987 1987 108 108 108 108
Gas-FC CCS 2223 2223 2223 2223 108 108 108 108
Oil 2179 2179 2179 2179 66 66 66 66
Nuclear 4721 4721 4721 4721 301 301 301 301
Hydrogen 1122 1122 1122 1122 38 38 38 38
Hydropower-Large 4700 4700 4700 4700 124 124 124 124
Hydropower-Small 6563 6563 6563 6563 379 379 379 379
Geothermal 8607 8607 8607 8607 354 354 354 354
Biomass 4336 4336 4336 4336 290 290 290 290
Biomass CCS 6820 6820 6820 6820 447 447 447 447
Solar PV 2185 1352 1171 990 39 32 26 26
Wind-Onshore 2914 2451 2366 2282 64 59 54 54
Wind-Offshore 5042 3719 3224 2729 241 161 80 80
Parameter assumption on hydrogen generation
    Capital cost (US$ kW-1) O&M cost (US$ kW-1) Efficiency (%)
Hydrogen Electricity 700 11 69
  Coal w/o CCS 2670 134 60
  Coal w/ CCS 3990 200 58
  Gas w/o CCS 910 46 70
  Gas w/ CCS 1360 41 69
  Biomass w/o CCS 7758 388 51
  Biomass w/ CCS 11595 580 47
  Imported synthetic methane 910 46 70
  Imported ammonia 1 306 12 84
Ammonia Electricity 1160 17 53
  Coal w/o CCS 2950 148 48
  Coal w/ CCS 4409 220 48
  Gas w/o CCS 1228 31 49
  Gas w/ CCS 1709 43 49
  Biomass w/o CCS 8572 429 41
  Biomass w/ CCS 15913 796 41
Synfuels Liquids 760 30 73
  Methanation 735 29 77

1 Hydrogen production cost by ammonia reconversion is presented in US$/t-NH3.

Energy demand technologies

Technological parameter assumptions on steel sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Energy saving (MJ/*) Unit (*)
  2010 2030 2050      
Sintering furnace cooler heat recovery 59 59 59 25 0.25 t-steel
Sintering furnace heat recovery 6 6 6 25 0.18 t-steel
Waste heat recuperator on hot blast stove 3 3 3 25 0.12 t-steel
Ferro coke 103 103 103 25 0.58 t-steel
Blast furnace w/ CCS 197 197 197 25 -0.99 t-steel
Top-pressure recovery turbine 30 30 30 25 0.14 t-steel
BOG heat recovery 50 50 50 25 0.12 t-steel
Hydrogen DRI-EAF 215 215 215 25 12.23 t-steel
Scrap preheating 59 59 59 25 0.11 t-steel
DC electric furnace 201 201 201 25 0.1 t-steel
Electrification in other processes 0 0 0 1 -0.09 t-steel
Natural gas in other processes 0 0 0 1 -0.09 t-steel
Continuous caster 3 3 3 25 0.08 t-steel
Regenerative burner 1 1 1 25 0.1 t-steel
High efficiency continuous annealing lines 1342 1342 1342 25 0.4 t-steel
Energy efficiency improvement in electricity use 41 41 41 25 0.06 t-steel
Heat generation, coal 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, oil 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, gas 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, biomass 42 42 42 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, electricity 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, hydrogen 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, ammonia 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat

Note: Cost unit is US$ * -1. Asterisk refers to the technology specific unit. Initial costs are represented as additional cost relative to the reference technology, excluding heat generation. For Hydrogen-DRI, energy consumption is shown at the energy saving column. For CCS technologies, energy saving is provided with negative number, as it consumes additional energy for CO2 capture. For heat generation, conversion efficiency is presented at the energy saving column.

Technological parameter assumptions on cement and non-metallic minerals sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Energy saving (MJ/*) Unit (*)
  2010 2030 2050      
Cement kiln w/ CCS 107 107 107 25 -0.72 t-cement
Vertical roller coal mill 8 8 8 25 0.05 t-cement
High efficiency clinker cooler 5 5 5 25 0.07 t-cement
Innovative cement manufacturing process 119 119 119 25 0.95 t-cement
Vertical roller raw mill 9 9 9 25 0.03 t-cement
Pre-grinder 15 15 15 25 0.04 t-cement
High-efficiency separators 3 3 3 25 0 t-cement
Vertical roller grind mill 14 14 14 25 0.05 t-cement
Vertical roller slug mill 6 6 6 25 0 t-cement
High-efficiency industrial furnace 19 19 19 25 0.26 t-cement
Electric furnace 38 38 38 25 0.18 t-cement
Heat generation, coal 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, oil 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, gas 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, biomass 42 42 42 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, electricity 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, hydrogen 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, ammonia 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat

Note: Cost unit is US$ * -1. Asterisk refers to the technology specific unit. Initial costs are represented as additional cost relative to the reference technology, excluding heat generation. For CCS technologies, energy saving is provided with negative number, as it consumes additional energy for CO2 capture. For heat generation, conversion efficiency is presented at the energy saving column.

Technological parameter assumptions on chemical sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Energy saving (MJ/*) Unit (*)
  2010 2030 2050      
Steam turbine for ethylene plant 315 315 315 25 2.91 t-ethylene
Low-temperature heat recovery 104 104 104 25 0.88 t-ethylene
HIDiC 4363 4363 4363 25 33.76 t-ethylene
Membranes for distlling process 1991 1991 1991 25 19.94 t-ethylene
Naphtha attached cracking 2680 2680 2680 25 4.57 t-ethylene
High performance LDPE manufacturing devices 163 163 163 25 0.93 t-ethylene
High performance PP manufacturing devices 253 253 253 25 0.84 t-ethylene
Heat recovery from methane separation 8 8 8 25 0.15 t-ethylene
Pre-fractionation for demethanizer tower 18 18 18 25 1.31 t-ethylene
High-efficiency industrial furnace for chemical 27 27 27 25 0.23 t-ethylene
Electric furnace for chemical 53 53 53 25 0.25 t-ethylene
Heat generation, coal 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, oil 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, gas 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, biomass 42 42 42 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, electricity 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, hydrogen 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, ammonia 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat

Note: Cost unit is US$ * -1. Asterisk refers to the technology specific unit. Initial costs are represented as additional cost relative to the reference technology, excluding heat generation. For heat generation, conversion efficiency is presented at the energy saving column.

Technological parameter assumptions on pulp and paper sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Energy saving (MJ/*) Unit (*)
  2010 2030 2050      
Continuous digester 478 478 478 25 1.5 t-paper
High performance pulp washing device 41 41 41 25 0.15 t-paper
Plate evaporator 107 107 107 25 1.68 t-paper
Oxigen delignification device 92 92 92 25 0.36 t-paper
High-eff. recycled pulp manufacturing device 102 102 102 25 1.28 t-paper
Efficient shoe press 67 67 67 25 1.61 t-paper
High concentration size press 38 38 38 25 3.22 t-paper
High performance dryer hood device 6 6 6 25 0.22 t-paper
Heat generation, coal 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, oil 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, gas 17 17 17 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, biomass 42 42 42 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, electricity 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, hydrogen 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat
Heat generation, ammonia 21 21 21 15 0.9 GJ-heat

Note: Cost unit is US$ * -1. Asterisk refers to the technology specific unit. Initial costs are represented as additional cost relative to the reference technology, excluding heat generation. For heat generation, conversion efficiency is presented at the energy saving column.

Technological parameter assumptions on other industry sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Efficiency (-)
  2010 2030 2050    
Furnace, coal, conventional 36 36 36 15 0.8
Furnace, oil, conventional 36 36 36 15 0.8
Furnace, gas, conventional 36 36 36 15 0.8
Furnace, coal, high efficiency 56 56 56 15 0.9
Furnace, oil, high efficiency 56 56 56 15 0.9
Furnace, gas, high efficiency 56 56 56 15 0.9
Electric furnace 85 85 85 15 0.9
Furnace, hydrogen 56 56 56 15 0.9
Furnace, ammonia 56 56 56 15 0.9
industrial motor 9 9 9 15 0.8
High-efficiency industrial motor 14 14 14 15 0.84
Industrial motor with inverter control 39 39 39 15 0.99
Heat generation, coal 17 17 17 15 0.9
Heat generation, oil 17 17 17 15 0.9
Heat generation, gas 17 17 17 15 0.9
Heat generation, biomass 42 42 42 15 0.9
Heat generation, electricity 21 21 21 15 0.9
Heat generation, heat-pump 51 51 51 15 3
Heat generation, hydrogen 21 21 21 15 0.9
Heat generation, ammonia 21 21 21 15 0.9

Note: Cost unit is US$ GJ-1, which is measured as cost per energy service or useful energy.

Technological parameter assumptions on passenger transport sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Efficiency (MJ km -1)
  2010 2030 2050    
Passenger ICE, existing 20 20 20 10 3
Passenger ICE, Lv1 20 20 20 10 2.49
Passenger ICE, Lv2 22 22 22 10 2.31
Passenger ICE, Lv3 22 22 22 10 2.21
Passenger ICE, Lv4 22 22 22 10 2.14
Passenger ICE, Lv5 22 22 22 10 2.08
Passenger HEV, Lv1 24 23 23 10 1.47
Passenger HEV, Lv2 24 23 23 10 1.4
Passenger HEV, Lv3 24 23 23 10 1.36
Passenger HEV, Lv4 24 23 23 10 1.33
Passenger HEV, Lv5 24 23 23 10 1.33
Passenger PHEV, Lv1 28 24 24 10 3.07
Passenger PHEV, Lv2 28 24 24 10 2.93
Passenger PHEV, Lv3 28 24 24 10 2.89
Passenger PHEV, Lv4 28 24 24 10 2.79
Passenger PHEV, Lv5 28 24 24 10 2.79
Passenger BEV, Lv1 56 28 27 10 0.69
Passenger BEV, Lv2 56 28 27 10 0.66
Passenger BEV, Lv3 56 28 27 10 0.64
Passenger BEV, Lv4 56 28 27 10 0.63
Passenger BEV, Lv5 56 28 27 10 0.63
Passenger NGV 23 23 23 10 3.79
Passenger FCEV 44 28 26 10 1.17
Passenger light ICE, existing 14 14 14 10 2.23
Passenger light ICE, Lv1 14 14 14 10 1.98
Passenger light ICE, Lv2 16 16 16 10 1.88
Passenger light ICE, Lv3 16 16 16 10 1.8
Passenger light ICE, Lv4 16 16 16 10 1.74
Passenger light ICE, Lv5 16 16 16 10 1.69
Passenger light BEV, Lv1 41 19 19 10 0.55
Passenger light BEV, Lv2 41 19 19 10 0.52
Passenger light BEV, Lv3 41 19 19 10 0.51
Passenger light BEV, Lv4 41 19 19 10 0.5
Passenger light BEV, Lv5 41 19 19 10 0.5
Bus, ICE existing 251 251 251 12 10.35
Bus, ICE Lv1 251 251 251 12 9.99
Bus, ICE Lv2 289 289 289 12 9.58
Bus, ICE Lv3 289 289 289 12 9.16
Bus, ICE Lv4 289 289 289 12 9.16
Bus, ICE Lv5 289 289 289 12 9.16
Hybrid bus Lv1 298 281 280 12 7.87
Hybrid bus Lv2 298 281 280 12 7.49
Hybrid bus Lv3 298 281 280 12 7.32
Hybrid bus Lv4 298 281 280 12 7.15
Hybrid bus Lv5 298 281 280 12 7.15
NG bus 289 289 289 12 10.35
BEV bus, Lv1 632 348 340 12 7.12
BEV bus, Lv2 632 348 340 12 6.78
BEV bus, Lv3 632 348 340 12 6.63
BEV bus, Lv4 632 348 340 12 6.47
BEV bus, Lv5 632 348 340 12 6.47
Fuel cell bus 406 329 312 12 6.84
Passenger train, electricity, existing 0 0 0 20 0.17
Passenger train, electricity, advanced 17 17 17 20 0.13
Passenger train, diesel, existing 0 0 0 20 0.49
Passenger train, diesel, advanced 17 17 17 20 0.4
Passenger ship, existing 0 0 0 20 15.33
Passenger ship, advanced 37 37 37 20 12.26
Passenger air, existing 0 0 0 20 0.99
Passenger air, advanced 4 4 4 20 0.79

Note: Cost unit is 1000 US$ vehicle-1 and US$ 1000pkm-1 for road and non-road transport, respectively. Energy efficiency unit for non-road modes is MJ pkm-1.

Technological parameter assumptions on freight transport sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Efficiency (MJ km -1)
  2010 2030 2050    
Large truck, ICE, existing 44 44 44 11 8.49
Large truck, ICE, Lv1 44 44 44 11 8.25
Large truck, ICE, Lv2 51 51 51 11 7.84
Large truck, ICE, Lv3 51 51 51 11 7.5
Large truck, ICE, Lv4 51 51 51 11 7.5
Large truck, ICE, Lv5 51 51 51 11 7.5
Large truck, HEV, Lv1 67 53 53 11 6.5
Large truck, HEV, Lv2 67 53 53 11 6.19
Large truck, HEV, Lv3 67 53 53 11 6.05
Large truck, HEV, Lv4 67 53 53 11 5.91
Large truck, HEV, Lv5 67 53 53 11 5.91
Large truck, NGV 51 51 51 11 12.08
Large truck, BEV, Lv1 494 139 129 11 6.03
Large truck, BEV, Lv2 494 139 129 11 5.74
Large truck, BEV, Lv3 494 139 129 11 5.61
Large truck, BEV, Lv4 494 139 129 11 5.48
Large truck, BEV, Lv5 494 139 129 11 5.48
Large truck, FCEV 183 95 78 11 5.64
Medium truck, ICE, existing 36 36 36 11 3.1
Medium truck, ICE, Lv1 36 36 36 11 3.01
Medium truck, ICE, Lv2 42 42 42 11 2.86
Medium truck, ICE, Lv3 42 42 42 11 2.74
Medium truck, ICE, Lv4 42 42 42 11 2.74
Medium truck, ICE, Lv5 42 42 42 11 2.74
Medium truck, HEV, Lv1 46 41 41 11 2.37
Medium truck, HEV, Lv2 46 41 41 11 2.26
Medium truck, HEV, Lv3 46 41 41 11 2.21
Medium truck, HEV, Lv4 46 41 41 11 2.16
Medium truck, HEV, Lv5 46 41 41 11 2.16
Medium truck, BEV, Lv1 93 50 49 11 1.19
Medium truck, BEV, Lv2 93 50 49 11 1.13
Medium truck, BEV, Lv3 93 50 49 11 1.11
Medium truck, BEV, Lv4 93 50 49 11 1.08
Medium truck, BEV, Lv5 93 50 49 11 1.08
Medium truck, FCEV 116 64 55 11 1.69
Small truck, ICE, existing 10 10 10 10 2.49
Small truck, ICE, Lv1 10 10 10 10 2.42
Small truck, ICE, Lv2 11 11 11 10 2.3
Small truck, ICE, Lv3 11 11 11 10 2.2
Small truck, ICE, Lv4 11 11 11 10 2.2
Small truck, ICE, Lv5 11 11 11 10 2.2
Small truck, HEV, Lv1 14 12 12 10 1.9
Small truck, HEV, Lv2 14 12 12 10 1.81
Small truck, HEV, Lv3 14 12 12 10 1.77
Small truck, HEV, Lv4 14 12 12 10 1.73
Small truck, HEV, Lv5 14 12 12 10 1.73
Small truck, BEV, Lv1 34 16 16 10 1.05
Small truck, BEV, Lv2 34 16 16 10 1
Small truck, BEV, Lv3 34 16 16 10 0.98
Small truck, BEV, Lv4 34 16 16 10 0.96
Small truck, BEV, Lv5 34 16 16 10 0.96
Freight train, electricity, existing 0 0 0 20 0.17
Freight train, electricity, advanced 22 22 22 20 0.14
Freight train, diesel, existing 0 0 0 20 0.52
Freight train, diesel, advanced 17 17 17 20 0.42
Freight ship, existing 0 0 0 20 0.54
Freight ship, advanced 1 1 1 20 0.44
Freight air, existing 0 0 0 20 19.81
Freight air, advanced 50 50 50 20 15.85

Note: Cost unit is 1000 US$ vehicle-1 and US$ 1000tkm-1 for road and non-road transport, respectively. Energy efficiency unit for non-road modes is MJ tkm-1.

Technological parameter assumptions on residential sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Efficiency (-)
  2010 2030 2050    
Air conditioner, existing 1735 1735 1735 10 3.74
Air conditioner, efficient 1896 1896 1896 10 4.83
Air conditioner, more efficient 1896 1896 1896 10 5.6
Space heating, electricity 348 348 348 10 1
Space heating, gas 620 620 620 10 0.92
Space heating, oil 662 662 662 10 0.87
Space heating, biomass 1446 1446 1446 10 0.83
Heat pump water heater 5315 4134 4134 10 3.1
Heat pump water heater, efficient 5315 4134 4134 10 4.4
Electric water heater 2890 2890 2890 10 0.9
Water heating, oil 2404 2404 2404 10 0.83
Water heating, gas 2764 2764 2764 10 1
Water heating, gas, efficient 2404 2404 2404 10 0.83
Water heater, solar 6450 6450 6450 10 1
Fuel cell 24144 7512 7512 10 0.58
Cooking, electricity 968 968 968 10 0.8
Cooking, gas 850 850 850 10 0.62
Incandescent lamp 9 9 9 1 3.89
CFL 74 74 74 5 17.61
Fluorescent lamp 74 74 74 10 23.53
LED 186 186 186 10 41.67
LED, efficient 372 372 372 10 55.56
Residential appliances, existing stock average 0 0 0 10 1
Residential appliances, flow 0 0 0 10 1.25
Residential appliances, advanced 719 719 719 10 1.43

Note: Cost unit is US$ GJ-1, which is measured as cost per energy service or useful energy.

Technological parameter assumptions on commercial sector.
  Initial cost     Lifetime (year) Efficiency (-)
  2010 2030 2050    
Air conditioner, Lv1 57 57 57 15 2.76
Air conditioner, Lv2 57 57 57 15 3.19
Air conditioner, Lv3 57 57 57 15 3.56
Air conditioner, Lv4 57 57 57 15 3.67
Air conditioner, Lv5 57 57 57 15 4.64
Gas heat pump 49 49 49 15 1.33
Absorption chiller 38 38 38 15 1.26
District heating 38 38 38 15 1
Coal boiler 38 38 38 15 0.9
Biomass boiler 49 49 49 15 0.9
Heat pump water heater 21 16 11 10 4.18
Heat pump water heater, efficient 21 16 11 10 6
Electric water heater 14 14 14 10 0.9
Water heating, gas 6 6 6 10 1.06
Water heating, gas, efficient 5 5 5 10 0.89
Water heating, oil 5 5 5 10 0.84
Water heating, coal 5 5 5 10 0.84
Water heating, heat 5 5 5 10 1
Water heating, solar 38 38 38 10 1
Water heating, biomass 14 14 14 10 1
Cooking, coal 10 10 10 10 0.6
Cooking, gas 10 10 10 10 0.6
Cooking, electricity 22 22 22 10 0.95
Incandescent lamp 0 0 0 2 3.89
Fluorescent lamp 3 3 3 5 25.56
LED, Lv1 9 9 9 10 25.56
LED, Lv2 9 9 9 10 41.67
LED Lv3 9 9 9 10 55.56
Commercial appliances, existing stock average 0 0 0 10 1
Commercial appliances, flow 0 0 0 10 1.25
Commercial appliances, advanced 25 25 25 10 1.43

Note: Cost unit is US$ GJ-1, which is measured as cost per energy service or useful energy.